relative clauses pronoun type

Relative pronoun type

this is in fact a type of gapped relative clause, but is distinguished by the fact that the role of the shared noun in the embedded clause is indicated indirectly by the case marking of the marker (the relative pronoun) used to join the main and embedded clauses. All languages which use relative pronouns have them in clause-initial position: though one could conceivably imagine a clause-final relative pronoun analogous to an adverbial subordinator in that position, they are unknown. Note that some languages have what are described as "relative pronouns" (in that they agree with some properties of the head noun, such as number and gender) but which don't actually indicate the case role of the shared noun in the embedded clause. Classical Arabic in fact has "relative pronouns" which are case-marked, but which agree in case with the head noun. Case-marked relative pronouns in the strict sense are almost entirely confined to European languages^{[citation needed]}, where they are widespread except among the Celtic family and Indo-Aryan family. The influence of Spanish has led to their adaption by a very small number of Native American languages, of which the best-known are the Keresan languages.

Pronoun retention type

In this type, the position relativized is indicated by means of a personal pronoun in the same syntactic position as would ordinarily be occupied by a noun phrase of that type in the main clause — known as a resumptive pronoun. It is equivalent to saying "The man who I saw him yesterday went home". Pronoun retention is very frequently used for relativization of inaccessible positions on the accessibility hierarchy. In Persian and Classical Arabic, for example, resumptive pronouns are required when the embedded role is other than the subject or direct object, and optional in the case of the direct object. Resumptive pronouns are common in non-verb-final languages of Africa and Asia, and also used by the Celtic languages of northwest Europe and Romanian ("Omul pe care l-am văzut ieri a mers acasă"/"The man who I saw him yesterday went home"). They also occur in deeply embedded positions in English, as in "That's the girl that I don't know what she did",although this is sometimes considered non-standard.

Only a very small number of languages, of which the best known is Yoruba, have pronoun retention as their sole grammatical type of relative clause.

Nonreduction type

In the nonreduction type, unlike the other three, the shared noun occurs as a full-fledged noun phrase in the embedded clause, which has the form of a full independent clause. Typically, it is the head noun in the main clause that is reduced or missing. Some languages use relative clauses of this type with the normal strategy of embedding the relative clause next to the head noun. These languages are said to have internally headed relative clauses, which would be similar to the (ungrammatical) English structure "[You see the girl over there] is my friend" or "I took [you see the girl over there] out on a date". This is used, for example, in Navajo, which uses a special relative verb (as with some other Native American languages).
A second strategy is the correlative-clause strategy used by Hindi and other Indo-Aryan languages, as well as Bambara. This strategy is equivalent to saying "Which girl you see over there, she is my daughter" or "Which knife I killed my friend with, the police found that knife". It is "correlative" because of the corresponding "which ... that ..." demonstratives or "which ... she/he/it ..." pronouns, which indicate the respective nouns being equated. Note that the shared noun can either be repeated entirely in the main clause or reduced to a pronoun. Note also that there is no need to front the shared noun in such a sentence. For example, in the second example above, Hindi would actually say something equivalent "I killed my friend with which knife, the police found that knife".
Dialects of some European languages, such as Italian, do use the nonreduction type in forms that could be glossed in English as "The man just passed us by, he introduced me to the chancellor here." Similarly, spoken English tends to replace uses of the relative pronoun whose with non-reduced clauses. For example, consider the following sentence:

The man whose daughter I know is arriving tomorrow.

Informal English would tend to say instead

This man, I know his daughter, (and) he's arriving tomorrow.

In general, however, nonreduction is restricted to verb-final languages, though it is more common among those that are head-marking.

exercise 38

 1. George is the man chosen to represent the committee at the convertion.
2. All of the money accepted has already been released.
3. The papers on the table belong to Patricia.
4. The man brought to the police station confessed to the crime.
5. The girl drinking coffee is Mary Allen.
6. John’s wife a professor has written several papers on this subject.
7. The man talking to the policeman is my uncle.
8. The book on the top shelf is the one that I need.
9. The number of students counted is quite high.
10. Leo Evans a doctor eats in this restaurant every day.

exercise 37

 1. The record that was reduced by this company became gold record.
2. Checking accounts, that require a minimum balance are very common now.
3. The professor to whom you spoke yesterday is not here today.
4. John whom grades are the highest in the school has received a scholarship.
5. Felipe bought the camera that has three lenses.
6. Frank is the man whom we are going to nominate for the office of treasurer.
7. The doctor is with the patient whom leg was broken in an accident.
8. Jane is the woman whom is going to China next year.
9. Janet wants a typewriter that self-corrects.
10. This book I found that last week contains some useful information.
11. Mr. Bryant whom team has lost the game looks very sad.
12. James wrote an article that indicated he disliked the president.
13. The director of the program whom graduated from Harvard University is planning to
retire next year.
14. This is the book that I have been looking for this book all year.
15. William whom brother is a lawyer wants to become a judge.

exercise 36

1. The teacher made Juan leave the room
2. Toshiko had her car repaired by a mechanic
3. Ellen got Marvin typed her paper
4. I made Jane call her friend on the telephone
5. We got our house painted last week
6. Dr. Byrd is having the students write a composition
7. The policeman made the suspect lie on the ground
8. Mark got his transcripts send to the university
9. Maria is getting her hair cut tomorrow
10. We will have to get the Dean signed this form
11. The teacher let Al leave the classroom.
12. Maria got Ed washed the pipettes
13. She always has her car to fix by the same mechanic
14. Gene got his book published by a subsidy publisher
15. We have to help Janet to find her keys

Passive voice

Passive voice

ada dua bentuk “voice” dalam bahasa Inggris, active voice dan passive voice. Active voice menunjukkan apa yang dilakukan oleh subjek, contoh:

• The secretary wrote a letter (Sekretaris menulis sebuah surat)

Passive voice menunjukkan apa yang dilakukan terhadap subjek. Contoh:

• The letter was written by the secretary (Surat ditulis oleh sekreatir)

Bentuk

Kalimat pasif dibuat dengan kata kerja “to be” dan kata kerja bentuk ke-3. Berikut beberapa tenses bahasa Inggris utama yang digunakan dalam passive voice.

Tenses Simple present: Present continuous: Simple past: Past continuous: Present perfect: Past perfect: Future: Future continuous: Present conditional: Past conditional:

Subject Flowers Flowers Flowers Flowers Flowers Flowers Flowers Flowers Flowers Flowers

Verb “to be” are are being were were being have been had been will be will be being would be would have been

Verb III planted every year planted now. planted last year planted last summer. planted here for 10 years. planted until last year. planted next year. planted during the summer. planted if we had seeds. planted if we had had seeds.

By

Untuk menyatakan apa penyebab sebuah tindakan pasif, kita bisa menggunakan by. Contoh:

• This photo was taken by my friend.
• I was given this by my brother.

Seringkali tidak diperlukan untuk menyatakan penyebab tindakan pasif, khususnya jika dipahami dengan jelas atau tidak relevan. Sebagai contoh:

• The meeting was cancelled (pertemuan itu dibatalkan). (Informasi penting yang ingin disampaikan adalah pembatalan pertemuan, bukan siapa yang membatalkannya.)

• These boots were made in Italy (sepatu-sepatu boot ini dibuat di Italia). (Informasi yang penting dalam kalimat ini adalah bahwa sepatu-sepatu tersebut dibuat di Italia, bukan siapa yang membuatnya).

Born

Ketika berbicara tentang kelahiran orang tertentu atau suatu peristiwa, kita menggunakan bentuk pasif “to be born”. Contoh:

• I was born in Iran.
• The twins were born just last year.

Get

Get bisa digunakan menggantikan to be pada situasi dimana sesuatu terjadi. Contoh:

- Our flight got cancelled = Our flight was cancelled.
- I got paid today = I was paid today.

Get tidak bisa digunakan pada situasi-situasi umum dan apabila bersama dengan kata kerja yang menyatakan keadaan (bukan tindakan). Contoh:

- He is liked by a lot of people. - Benar
- He gets liked by a lot of people. - Tidak benar
- She is known to be a hard-working employee. - Benar
- She gets known to be a hard-working employee.- Tidak benar

Get digunakan lebih sering dalam bahasa Inggris informal.

sumber:
http://www.1-language.com/englishcourse/unit58_grammar.htm

couse connectors

Formula :
…because + Subject + Verb ….
ex : He was frustrated because the mucked was up windscreen.
…because of + noun (noun phrase) ….
ex: He was frustrated because of the mucked up windscreen (noun phrase).
He was frustrated because the mucked was up windscreen
note :
Because of sering ditukar dengan due to …
Because juga bisa menjadi sebuah awal kalimat …
ex : because of the rain (noun phrase), we have cancelled the party .

· Subordinating conjunctions

Introduce adverb clauses

Either the dependent clause or the independent clause may come first in the sentence, with no change in meaning

ex: Before he came, we didn't have a physical education teacher.

We didn't have a physical education teacher before he came.

· Prepositions

Is followed by a noun or noun phrase

Either clause may appear first

ex: He didn't come to class due to his illness.

· Transitions and Conjunctive adverbs

Joins two sentences separated by a period or two clauses separated by a semi colon.

Only one possible order of the sentences

The transition may appear clause initial, clause final, or between the subject and verb of thesecond sentence.

ex: He was sick. Nevertheless, he came to class.

· Conjunctions

One possible order

A comma is used before the conjunction

In academic writing, do not begin a sentence with a conjunction

ex: He didn't do his homework, so he didn't pass the class.

Sequential (Time)

1. Subordinating conjunctions

until

after

before

when

while

since

once

whenever

as soon as

as long as

by the time.

2. Prepositions

during

after

before

since

until

upon

3. Conjunctive adverbs and transitions

then

next

after that

following that

before that

afterwards

meanwhile

beforehand

4. Conjunctions

and then

Causal (Reason and Purpose, Cause and Effect)

Subordinating conjunctions	because as since inasmuch as now that as long as such...that [such a/an + adjective + noun + that] so...that [so +adjective or adverb + that] [so much/many/little/few + noun + that] expressing purpose so that in order that
Prepositions	because of due to in order to
Conjunctive adverbs and transitions	therefore consequently
Conjunctions	so

Adversative (unexpected result, contrast, opposition)

Subordinating conjunctions	even though although though (in spite of the fact that) while whereas where
Prepositions	despite in spite of
Conjunctive adverbs and transitions	however nonetheless nevertheless on the other hand in contrast on the contrary
Conjunctions	but...anyway but...still yet...still but

Condition

Subordinating conjunctions	if unless even if providing (that) provided (that) in case whether or not only if* *verb inversion, no comma if only if appears first in the sentence
Prepositions
Conjunctive adverbs and transitions	Otherwise
Conjunctions	or (else)

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Reduced Adverb Clauses

Rule: If the subject of the adverb clause and the main clause are the same, the adverb clause may be reduced.
To reduce, drop the subject and the verb be in the adverb clause. Ex : · I had an accident while I was driving past the REI climbing rock. · I had an accident while driving past the REI climbing rock. · Even though she was hungry, she didn’t eat the pie. · Even though hungry, she didn’t eat the pie.
If there is not be verb, change the adverb clause verb to the present participle. Ex : · Before she owned a pet, she was afraid of dogs. · Before owning a pet, she was afraid of dogs.
You may omit the subordinating conjunction (while) with simultaneous actions. Ex : · While camping at Mt. Rainier, I saw several mountain goats. · Camping at Mt. Rainier, I saw several mountain goats.
Because is always omitted in reduced clauses. Ex : · Because she didn’t get accepted to the university, she is going to attend community college. · Not being accepted to the university, she is going to attend community college.
You may also omit being in the reduced clause. Ex: · Being dyslexic, he doesn’t like to read in public. · Dyslexic, he doesn’t like to read in public.
Remember: Only sentences in which the subjects of both clauses are the same maybe be reduced. Ex : · While I was eating corn on the cob,my tooth fell out. This adverb clause cannot be reduced because the subject of the adverb clause is not the same as the subject of the main clause.